Kalinga School of Architecture: The Majestic Temples of Odisha

Odisha occupies a distinct place in Indian art on account of her great monuments and masterpieces of sculpture. The state’s temple architecture, classified as the Kalinga School — a sub-class of the North Indian Nagara style — represents over 700 years of continuous artistic evolution from the 6th to the 13th century AD.

The Foundation: Rock Art & Cave Architecture

Prehistoric Rock Art (28 Sites)

Odisha’s artistic heritage begins in the prehistoric era. 28 rock-art sites have been discovered, all in the Western districts:

• Vikramkhol (Jharsuguda) — Rock engravings with characters intermediary between Mohenjodaro and Brahmi scripts

• Gudahandi (Kalahandi) — Red and black paintings including a hunting scene

• Jogimath (Nuapada) — Pictographs of hills, instruments, animals, and human figures

• Manikmada (Sundargarh) — Red ochre paintings of hunting scenes

• Ushakothi (Sundargarh) — Pictographic writing revealing proto-historic culture

Sundargarh district alone accounts for more than three-fourths of all rock-art sites in the state.

Buddhist Monuments (3rd C BC — 12th C AD)

Buddhism flourished in Odisha for over 1,500 years:

Dhauli (near Bhubaneswar):

• Ashokan Rock Edicts (after the Kalinga War of 261 BC)

• Elephant figure hewn from solid rock — the earliest sculpture in Orissa

• The elephant symbolically represents Buddha’s birth

The Diamond Triangle — Lalitgiri, Udayagiri, Ratnagiri:

• Three contiguous hillsites with stupas, monasteries, and Buddhist images

• Ratnagiri dates from the 5th century AD

• Phenomenal growth under the Bhauma-Kara Kings (8th-9th century) who were Buddhists

• Buddhism evolved from Mahayana to Vajrayana (Tantric element)

• Sculptures include Avalokiteswara, Manjushri, Tara, and the five Dhyani Buddhas

The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang (638 AD) reported the existence of several hundred monasteries and hundreds of Buddhist monks in Odisha.

Jain Caves — Khandagiri & Udayagiri (1st C BC)

Emperor Kharavela of the Chedi dynasty ordered caves to be cut from solid rock for Jain monks:

• Facades of pillared verandahs and cells

• Sculptural decorations: panels of legends, historical episodes, religious observances

• Animal figures (lion, goose, peacock, fish, snake) — emblems of Jain Tirthankaras

• The Hatigumpha inscription records events of Kharavela’s reign

• Rani Gumpha contains a famous musical panel depicting dance performances

The Four Dynasties of Temple Building

Hindu temple architecture in Odisha developed through four major dynasties:

Dynasty | Period | Key Contribution

Sailodbhavas | 575–730 AD | Square sanctum + Sikhara + rectangular Jagamohan with pillars

Bhaumakaras | 736–940 AD | Cantilever principle replaced pillars; pilasters on inner walls

Somavansis | 885–1110 AD | Square Jagamohan (Rekha Deula); Pancha-Ratha plan; Pidha Deula evolved

Imperial Gangas | 1110–1435 AD | Raised plinths; added Natamandir + Bhogamandapa

Temple Terminology

An Orissan temple complex consists of four parts (in later period):

• Deula (Sanctum with Sikhara/curvilinear tower) — also called Rekha Deula

• Jagamohan (Assembly Hall/Mukhamandapa) — also called Pidha Deula (pyramidal roof)

• Natamandir (Dancing Hall)

• Bhogamandapa (Hall for Food Offerings)

The vertical sections of the temple were called Rathas. The Pancha-Ratha plan (five rathas) was introduced during the Somavansi period.

The Three Greatest Temples

1. Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneswar (11th Century)

• Built by the Somavansi rulers (Keshari dynasty)

• Dedicated to Lord Shiva — Saivism was the predominant cult

• Renowned for sculptural excellence

• The Ashokastami chariot festival is held here annually

2. Jagannath Temple, Puri (12th Century)

• Construction started by Anantavarma Choda Gangadeva (1078–1147)

• Completed by his successors

• One of the Char Dham (four most holy pilgrimage centres of India)

• Houses the trinity: Jagannath, Balabhadra, and Subhadra

• Has the largest temple kitchen in India — feeds thousands daily

• Annual Rath Yatra (Car Festival) attracts lakhs of devotees

3. Sun Temple, Konark (13th Century) — The Black Pagoda

• Built by Ganga ruler Narsinghadeva-I (1238–1264 AD)

• Conceived as a chariot with 24 wheels drawn by 7 horses

• Rabindranath Tagore wrote: “Here the language of man is defeated by the language of stone”

• Famous for erotic sculptures and life-size Surasundari figures (heavenly musicians)

• A giraffe depicted in sculpture — evidence of overseas contacts

• The Natya Mandapa has some of the finest dancing images in stone

Sculptural Art

Hindu Sculptures

Three streams of Hindu art flourished:

• Saivism — Siva temples and associated deities

• Vaishnavism — Krishna and Vishnu iconography

• Saktism — Saptamatruka, Chamunda, Durga images

Special mentions:

• Yogini temples at Hirapur and Ranipur-Jharial (Tantric sculptures)

• Konark — Social themes: family life, dance, music, games, hunting; figures of kings, queens, soldiers, horses

The Ganga period (1110–1435 AD) produced the most remarkable sculptures. After this dynasty, sculptural art in Odisha gradually declined.

Maritime Heritage

The 8th century AD saw Odisha’s remarkable overseas maritime trade and establishment of colonies in South-East Asia. Several busy seaports existed along the coast — excavations continue to reveal details.

Legacy and Significance for OPSC

Key facts to remember:

• Kalinga School = sub-class of Nagara style

• Utkala = ‘Land of Artistic Excellence’

• The word ‘Orissa’ evolved from ‘Odra’ — one of the ancient names

• The Sikhara (curvilinear spire) is the defining feature

• Temples were built by hereditary craftsmen called Shilpi according to canonical texts called Shastras

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This article is part of the DailyIAS Odisha Art & Culture series for OPSC preparation. For detailed revision notes with diagrams, check our Notes section under ODC-01.